Concepts of Ageing and Disability

Concepts of Ageing and Disability Impairment, disability, and handicap Impairment is any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or function e.g. hearing or vision impairment, brain injury, impaired movement, impairment of the sense of smell. Disability is any restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being e.g. unable to perform ADL’s, communication, learning and working. Handicap is a disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from an impairment or a disability , that prevents the fulfillment of a role that is considered normal (depending of age, sex and social and cultural factors) for that individual. Similarities and differences: Impairment, disability, and handicap all avoid a person to accomplish normal functions in certain areas of body. The difference is that impairment is the irregularity in structure of function of the body , the condition of being unable to perform as a consequence of physical or mental unfitness such as dysomia- impairment of the sense of smell while disability is the restriction of be short of of ability to perform certain utility. Disability is an umbrella term covering impairment, activity limitations and participation restrictions. Handicap refers to condition that leads to impairment of disability and prevent the person from doing things that other people of their age of gender would normally do, the case is any disadvantage that makes success more difficult or place at a disadvantage such as â€Å"He was handicapped by his injured ankle†. Ageing, old age and ageism Ageing is progressive and universal starting at birth and ending with death. Ageing and disease processes are not the same, the life expectancy in developed countries has increased by more than 30 years in the last century. Also in New Zealand the proportion of older people is expected to grow rapidly over the next 20years. The process of change in the properties of a material occurring over a period, either spontaneously or through deliberate action. Old age: old people often have limited regenerative abilities and are more tend to disease, syndromes, and sickness than younger adults. The elderly also confront other social issues such as retirement, loneliness, and ageism. The chronological age donated as â€Å"old age† varies culturally and historically, so , old age is â€Å"a social construct† rather than a definite â€Å"biological stage â€Å" Ageism: one of the challenges to positive ageing is ageism. Ageism refers to the discrimination that older people can experience due to their age. Often ageism is reflected in eligibility for access to support and resources Also in employment ,(particularly those who experience impairments)are overlooked for employment opportunities. Ageism also occurs when there are negative forms of social exclusion and judgments made about older people on the basis of the perceived worth of their contributions. Similarities and differences: Ageing, old age, and ageism all connect grow older with old person. The difference is that ageing is What’s happening as you get elder through life and old age is the result of aging for a long enough time where you are close to death and your life is coming to an end Ageing is the heaps of thing are changing in a person over time. Ageing is many angles of process such as physical, social, and psychological aspect . While old age is contained in ages closing or exceeding the average life span of human beings, and the life cycle of the end of human beings. Ageism is a combination of three connected components. Among them were prejudicial attitudes towards older people, old age, and the ageing process. Discriminatory approach against elderly, policies that maintain stereotypes about elder people. Theories of ageing in relation to gender, sexuality, race and class The social model of disability : Disability is caused by physical, organizational, and attitudinal barriers in society. Looks for full integration of individuals to society. Focus on social acceptance and equality. Identifies systemic barriers, negative and exclusion by society. Sees society as the contributory factor in disabling people. Psychosocial Theories of Ageing : As people grow older, their behavior changes, their social interactions changes, and the activities in which they engage change. Gender Differences The Social Model of Disability: In osteoarthritis, men and women had significantly difference in pain, pain behavior and physical disability. Women feel pain more seriously than men does. it leads depression to women more than men. It can be barriers in social involving for women. Biological Theories of Ageing: Women have lower cardiovascular risk and greater longevity than men. So some study supposed that there are important gender-related differences in beat-to-beat heart rate dynamics. But some study discovered that heart rate did not be dissimilar between age groups or genders. The heart rate power decreased with age in both men and women. Sexuality The Social Model of Disability : The body of sexuality is at the heart of contemporary political and theoretical issue. Yet the social model of disability makes it a banishment. Sexuality of disability is caused by attitudinal barriers in society. Nevertheless presently old aged sexuality is understood and increasingly accepted in society. Biological Theories of Ageing : Human sexuality is the ability to have erotic experiences and responses. Sexuality can have biological interest and attraction for another person. The biological aspect of sexuality in ageing refers to the reduction of reproductive mechanism as well as the basic biological drive lessen that exists in all species. Race The Social Model of Disability : Data are from population –based sample of 4,136 African American and Whites aged over 65 living in North Carolina. There is reduced risk for disability when they associate with friends as a social interaction occurs. By instrumental support leads to increased risk for disability risk significantly , with a greater adverse effect among Whites than African Americans. Expect for instrumental support, there were few racial differences in the association of social relationships with disability. The Medical Model of Ageing : This study examined surgery for colorectal cancer among medical beneficiaries 65 years of age or older with an initial diagnosis in 1987. White patients were much more likely than Black to undergo surgical resection, even after age, and location and extent of tumor were controlled for. Deprivation The Social Model of Disability : If the disability person has no immediate family or carer to support them , a representative will inform him/her for correct managing. The managing authority at the care home or hospital should work together to ensure this disability person understand the deprivation of liberty process, that he/she knows his/her right, and that they receive the right support when the authorization process starts and a result has been done. Otherwise deprivation of liberty leads them to make barriers in society to them. Psychosocial Theories of Ageing : The elderly grow older , their boundary is restricted by someone who care for them. If you feel that elderly is being deprived of their liberty ,speak to the person in charge. They try to agree on changes that can be made so that the person’s freedom is less restricted. For example, person who with dementia you can’t let them go as a normal person . but should ensure that only deprives someone of their liberty in a safe and correct way, also that is the best interests of the person and there is no other way to look after them. Otherwise their social interactions significantly change to the worst way.

Music and Learning

TETTEH OKLEY CEPHAS TOPIC: MUSIC AND LEARNING; incorporating music rhythm into studies to aid memory and recall. Case Study at the University of Ghana,Accra. Submitted as research proposal to Mr Adotey, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction 1. 1 Background of the research 1. 2The study area 1. 3Problem statement 1. 4 Aims and objectives of this study 2. Literature review 3. Methodology 3. 2 Methodological considerations 3. 2. 1 Qualitative framework of study 3. 3. Data collection and procedure 3. 3. 1 Instruments,participants 3. 3. 2 Data analysis 4. Discussions;summary of discussion . INTRODUCTION 1. 1 background to the research Are people typically geniuses? Statistically, people probably are not. In fact, most people probably aren't even intellectually gifted at all. Most people are likely to be pretty much average, maybe a little bit above average, or a little below, but very average none the less. It is universally understood tha t people strive to learn to become wiser and more informed about the world around them. The more people learn, the more powerful they can become. It is the speed at which people learn that separates the geniuses from the average people from the learning disabled.Geniuses don't run into problems while learning, because they learn so fast. It is everyone else that could really use help. One solid way to increase the speed at which people learn is with music. People learn through music and their minds grow faster because of it. Some music, when implemented properly, can have positive effects on learning and attitude. Music is a powerful thing, and when we understand its significance, it can bring dramatic changes both positive and negative into our lives (Kristian David Oslon). Sceintific research on the neurological and developmental effects of music on learning has fascinated educators since long. rom soft music in the nursery to musical toys and dance lessons, encouraging music invo lvement in a fun way strengthens individual educational, physical and emotional development. Learning is the process of acquiring modifications in existing knowledge, skills, habits, or tendencies through experience, practice, or exercise. Learning includes associative processes, discrimination of sense data psychomotor and perceptual learning, imitation,concept,formation,problem solving, and insight. prominent psychologist and educationists have over the years propounded ways though which learning could be improved and made easy. f them music is no exception Music is one of the few activities that involves using the whole brain. It is intrinsic to all cultures and can have surprising benefits not only for learning language, improving memory and focusing attention, but also for physical coordination and development. Of course, music can be distracting if it's too loud or too jarring, or if it competes for our attention with what we're trying to do. But for the most part, exposure to many kinds of music has beneficial effects Music affects the process of learning and thinking.Listening to quiet and soothing music while working helps an individual to work faster and in a more efficient way. it has the ability to make the listener acts positively and feel motivated. The power of music to affect memory is quite intriguing. Mozart's music and baroque music, with a 60 beats per minute beat pattern, activates the left and right brain. The simultaneous left and right brain action maximizes learning and retention of information. The information being studied activates the left brain while the music activates the right brain.Also, activities which engage both sides of the brain at the same time, such as playing an instrument or singing, cause the brain to be more capable of processing information. Listening to music facilitates the recall of information19. Researchers have shown that certain types of music are a great â€Å"keys† for recalling memories. Informati on learned while listening to a particular song can often be recalled simply by â€Å"playing† the songs mentally. Further on,music has a calming effect on the mind and his even known to speed the recovery of health ailments. Studies have shown that music plays a vital core in enhancing creativity.It has a positive impact on the right side of the brain, triggering the brain centers responsible for the enhancement of creativity. Certain â€Å"ragas† are known to activate the â€Å"chakras† of our body, thus giving us an added advantage in other creative tasks. Music increases spatial and abstract reasoning skills. These are the skills required in tackling problems, solving puzzles and taking decisions. Listening to Mozarts is known to have a positive effect on the spatial-temporal reasoning, simply put,it makes you smarter. Have you tried learning anything by combining it with music or rhythm? or example, counting with a certain repeating pattern, or learning cer tain maths basics by giving it a tune, or learning poetry by reciting it musically. basically the combination of the rythm of a favorite song rhythm to something to be learnt makes it easier to remember since songs are are not plain words but are actually compositions with immediate catching rhythms. An interesting aspect of music is how it eliminates depression,which reduces brain activity and hampers the minds ability to plan and carry outs tasks, by increase the sorotonim levels of the brain making the brain alert. ensational rhythms can cause the brain waves to resonate in synch to the beat,thus leading to increased levels of concentration and increased mental alertness. This helps the brain to change speeds of processing easily as need be. Music as a whole usually helps increase discipline. Rythms are easy to catch and recall and if intertwined with subject topics would help a student to recall . Everyone who have been through elementary school can not deny the fact that the re citing of poem did not in one way the other help he. Most of us still vividly remember so well some of this poems.This is because this hard knowledge was presented in a way that sounded so well still sound pleasant to the ear. Students appear to learn and retain more when the subject matter is presented through rhythm and/or song. They can also retrieve information if taught the correct cues. Students do not have to be musical scholars or prodigies in order to benefit from the joys of being taught mnemonically. Students who have difficulty retaining information because they cannot read or have not been taught any memory strategies, can often learn effortlessly through rhythmic and musical mnemonics.When textual information is presented as the words of a song or familiar tune, it is better recalled and its memory is more durable. Also, when the lyric and melody are partnered and then rehearsed, the melody is an effective cue for retrieving the lyric. (Chazin & Neuschatz,1990; Gfeller , 1982; Wallace, 1994; Yalch, 1991; Gfeller, 1982). 1. 2. STUDY AREA The University of Ghana is the oldest and largest of the Ghanaian universities. It was founded in 1948 as the University College of the Gold coast, and was originally an affiliate college of the University of London which supervised its academic programmes and awarded degrees.It gained full university status in 1961, and now has nearly 40,000 students. The original emphasis was on the liberal arts, social sciences, basic science, agriculture, and medicine, but (partly as the result of a national educational reform programme) the curriculum was expanded to provide more technology-based and vocational courses and post graduate training. The university is mainly based at Legon about twelve kilometres northeast of the centre of Accra, Ghana.The medical school is in Korle Bu with a teaching Hospital and secondary campus in the city of Accra(Accra City Campus) meant for workers or the working class. It also has a gradua te school of nuclear and allied sciences at the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission, making it one of the few universities in Africa offering programmes in nuclear sciences. The university also has another branch of its Business school located in the Central city of Accra. The school can boast of big Department of Psychology upon its introduction into the University in 1967.It now is one of the fields with over thousands students. 1. 3PROBLEM STATEMENT †¢ Is it worth it all to use music to aid recall or improve memory †¢ which kinds of music rhythms are appropriate †¢ how can these rhythms be fashioned into the learning and teaching strategy to improve memory †¢ was the use of song rhythms able to aid recall and memory. †¢ If indeed it is shown that students benefit from learning subject matter in the classroom mnemonically through music rhythms, what is preventing teachers from using them more often in the classroom? 1. 4 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES To conglomerate the knowledge of music into the learning strategy to aid concentration and cognition †¢ To precisely state methods by which music can be incorporated into learning to aid easy recall of stuffs learnt †¢ To examine whether the attachment of the knowledge of music and rhythms to learning really aids recall and memory improvementt †¢ To prescribe the kind of music rhythms to be used in learning which can aid cognition precisely recall and memory improvement †¢ To help lecturers to sufficiently use music rhythms in teaching their students 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Yates (1972) chronicles how the Ancient Greeks, who invented many arts, also invented the art of memory. Just like their other arts this was passed onto Rome and subsequently descended in the European tradition. This method of impressing place, image, and music on memory has been called ‘mnemotechnics’ or mnemonics. †¢ The reviewed literature reveals current and past studies on the subject of using musical mnemonics as an effective memory tool in the classroom and beyond. A musical mnemonic is a useful tool for disciplines that require a great deal of memorization.Mnemonics can be teacher created or students created and should not be introduced until the student knows how to use them correctly. The literature reports that in general students, who have been taught through mnemonic instruction, outperform students taught by traditional instruction techniques. Much of the prior research was conducted in the curriculum areas of science, history, geography, English, social studies and foreign language vocabulary. The literature is presented from two complimentary perspectives; medical and educational. †¢ Sacks (2007) researched the phenomenon of brainworms.Brainworms are overly catchy tunes designed to bore their way into the listener’s ear or mind and are not easily forgotten. They were described as â€Å"cognitively infectious music agents† by a newsmagazine i n 1987 (p. 42). Sacks (2007) searches for the qualities that make a tune become almost impossible to delete from memory. Is it timbre? Rhythm? Melody? Repetition? â€Å"Or is it arousal of special emotional resonances or associations† (p. 43)? He recounts a song from his youth â€Å"Had Gadya† a Hebrew song that was long and repetitive and that became â€Å"hammered† (p. 44) into his head.He queries: â€Å"Did the qualities of repetition and simplicity†¦ act as neural facilitators, setting up a circuit (for it felt like this) that reexcited itself automatically? Or did the grim humor of the song or its solemn, liturgical context play a significant part too† (p. 44)? †¢ Sacks (2007) reports on how our brains are helplessly sensitive to music, and how the â€Å"automatic or compulsive internal repetition of musical phrases is almost universal† (p. 44). The brain treats musical imagery and musical memory in a unique way that has no equivalen ts in the visual mind.Melody, with its unique tempo, rhythm and pitch â€Å"tend to be preserved with remarkable accuracy† (p. 47) whereas visual scenes are often not recalled as accurately. Because of this â€Å"defenseless engraving of music on the brain† (p. 47) musical imagery and memory even occur in people who that they are not musical. Neurologically, people tend to find those brainworms or catchy tunes completely irresistible and unforgettable. This comes as no surprise to the advertising world that makes their millions out of flooding our world with such nauseating jingles as â€Å"Rice-a-Roni; the San Francisco treat! or â€Å"800-588-2300 Empire, today! † †¢ Mnemonics 14 †¢ Hodges (2000) marvels at the new revelations that the latest â€Å"neural machinery† has shown us, on the effects of music on the brain. He derives the following premises from neuromusical research. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The human brain has the ability t o respond to and participate in music. The musical brain operates at birth and persists throughout life. Early and ongoing musical training affects the organization of the musical brain. The musical brain consists of extensive neural systems involving widely †¢ †¢ istributed, but locally specialized regions of the brain: o Cognitive components Affective components Motor components The musical brain is highly resilient. In the same article he quotes a neurologist, Frank Wilson (1986) who states that â€Å"†¦ all of us have a biologic guarantee of musicianship†¦. we all have the capacity to respond to and participate in the music of our environment† (p. 18). Research from the Classroom and Learning Environment Gfeller (1986) did extensive research with learning disabled children and how musical mnemonics affect their retention and recall.She chose as subjects for her research both learning disabled and non learning disabled students. The study focused on the memorizing of multiplication facts through repetition either by chanting the numbers and product to a simple tune or standard verbal rehearsal. After the initial trial, the non disabled students reported significantly greater recall of the facts than the learning disabled participants (p ; . 05). By the end of the fifth trial however, both sets of participants who had learned their multiplication facts †¢ Mnemonics 15 usically, remembered significantly more (p ; . 001) than did any of the students using verbal recitation. Gfeller (1986) emphasizes the importance of teaching the students how and when to use a mnemonic. After all, the mnemonic is only effective if the student can access it, retrieve it and subsequently utilize it. She also encourages the use of familiar melodies in creating mnemonics. Students in her trial remarked that â€Å"†¦ the facts most easily recalled were those rehearsed to melodies reminiscent of songs they previousl †¢ Music and Learning TETTEH OKLEY CEPHAS TOPIC: MUSIC AND LEARNING; incorporating music rhythm into studies to aid memory and recall. Case Study at the University of Ghana,Accra. Submitted as research proposal to Mr Adotey, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction 1. 1 Background of the research 1. 2The study area 1. 3Problem statement 1. 4 Aims and objectives of this study 2. Literature review 3. Methodology 3. 2 Methodological considerations 3. 2. 1 Qualitative framework of study 3. 3. Data collection and procedure 3. 3. 1 Instruments,participants 3. 3. 2 Data analysis 4. Discussions;summary of discussion . INTRODUCTION 1. 1 background to the research Are people typically geniuses? Statistically, people probably are not. In fact, most people probably aren't even intellectually gifted at all. Most people are likely to be pretty much average, maybe a little bit above average, or a little below, but very average none the less. It is universally understood tha t people strive to learn to become wiser and more informed about the world around them. The more people learn, the more powerful they can become. It is the speed at which people learn that separates the geniuses from the average people from the learning disabled.Geniuses don't run into problems while learning, because they learn so fast. It is everyone else that could really use help. One solid way to increase the speed at which people learn is with music. People learn through music and their minds grow faster because of it. Some music, when implemented properly, can have positive effects on learning and attitude. Music is a powerful thing, and when we understand its significance, it can bring dramatic changes both positive and negative into our lives (Kristian David Oslon). Sceintific research on the neurological and developmental effects of music on learning has fascinated educators since long. rom soft music in the nursery to musical toys and dance lessons, encouraging music invo lvement in a fun way strengthens individual educational, physical and emotional development. Learning is the process of acquiring modifications in existing knowledge, skills, habits, or tendencies through experience, practice, or exercise. Learning includes associative processes, discrimination of sense data psychomotor and perceptual learning, imitation,concept,formation,problem solving, and insight. prominent psychologist and educationists have over the years propounded ways though which learning could be improved and made easy. f them music is no exception Music is one of the few activities that involves using the whole brain. It is intrinsic to all cultures and can have surprising benefits not only for learning language, improving memory and focusing attention, but also for physical coordination and development. Of course, music can be distracting if it's too loud or too jarring, or if it competes for our attention with what we're trying to do. But for the most part, exposure to many kinds of music has beneficial effects Music affects the process of learning and thinking.Listening to quiet and soothing music while working helps an individual to work faster and in a more efficient way. it has the ability to make the listener acts positively and feel motivated. The power of music to affect memory is quite intriguing. Mozart's music and baroque music, with a 60 beats per minute beat pattern, activates the left and right brain. The simultaneous left and right brain action maximizes learning and retention of information. The information being studied activates the left brain while the music activates the right brain.Also, activities which engage both sides of the brain at the same time, such as playing an instrument or singing, cause the brain to be more capable of processing information. Listening to music facilitates the recall of information19. Researchers have shown that certain types of music are a great â€Å"keys† for recalling memories. Informati on learned while listening to a particular song can often be recalled simply by â€Å"playing† the songs mentally. Further on,music has a calming effect on the mind and his even known to speed the recovery of health ailments. Studies have shown that music plays a vital core in enhancing creativity.It has a positive impact on the right side of the brain, triggering the brain centers responsible for the enhancement of creativity. Certain â€Å"ragas† are known to activate the â€Å"chakras† of our body, thus giving us an added advantage in other creative tasks. Music increases spatial and abstract reasoning skills. These are the skills required in tackling problems, solving puzzles and taking decisions. Listening to Mozarts is known to have a positive effect on the spatial-temporal reasoning, simply put,it makes you smarter. Have you tried learning anything by combining it with music or rhythm? or example, counting with a certain repeating pattern, or learning cer tain maths basics by giving it a tune, or learning poetry by reciting it musically. basically the combination of the rythm of a favorite song rhythm to something to be learnt makes it easier to remember since songs are are not plain words but are actually compositions with immediate catching rhythms. An interesting aspect of music is how it eliminates depression,which reduces brain activity and hampers the minds ability to plan and carry outs tasks, by increase the sorotonim levels of the brain making the brain alert. ensational rhythms can cause the brain waves to resonate in synch to the beat,thus leading to increased levels of concentration and increased mental alertness. This helps the brain to change speeds of processing easily as need be. Music as a whole usually helps increase discipline. Rythms are easy to catch and recall and if intertwined with subject topics would help a student to recall . Everyone who have been through elementary school can not deny the fact that the re citing of poem did not in one way the other help he. Most of us still vividly remember so well some of this poems.This is because this hard knowledge was presented in a way that sounded so well still sound pleasant to the ear. Students appear to learn and retain more when the subject matter is presented through rhythm and/or song. They can also retrieve information if taught the correct cues. Students do not have to be musical scholars or prodigies in order to benefit from the joys of being taught mnemonically. Students who have difficulty retaining information because they cannot read or have not been taught any memory strategies, can often learn effortlessly through rhythmic and musical mnemonics.When textual information is presented as the words of a song or familiar tune, it is better recalled and its memory is more durable. Also, when the lyric and melody are partnered and then rehearsed, the melody is an effective cue for retrieving the lyric. (Chazin & Neuschatz,1990; Gfeller , 1982; Wallace, 1994; Yalch, 1991; Gfeller, 1982). 1. 2. STUDY AREA The University of Ghana is the oldest and largest of the Ghanaian universities. It was founded in 1948 as the University College of the Gold coast, and was originally an affiliate college of the University of London which supervised its academic programmes and awarded degrees.It gained full university status in 1961, and now has nearly 40,000 students. The original emphasis was on the liberal arts, social sciences, basic science, agriculture, and medicine, but (partly as the result of a national educational reform programme) the curriculum was expanded to provide more technology-based and vocational courses and post graduate training. The university is mainly based at Legon about twelve kilometres northeast of the centre of Accra, Ghana.The medical school is in Korle Bu with a teaching Hospital and secondary campus in the city of Accra(Accra City Campus) meant for workers or the working class. It also has a gradua te school of nuclear and allied sciences at the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission, making it one of the few universities in Africa offering programmes in nuclear sciences. The university also has another branch of its Business school located in the Central city of Accra. The school can boast of big Department of Psychology upon its introduction into the University in 1967.It now is one of the fields with over thousands students. 1. 3PROBLEM STATEMENT †¢ Is it worth it all to use music to aid recall or improve memory †¢ which kinds of music rhythms are appropriate †¢ how can these rhythms be fashioned into the learning and teaching strategy to improve memory †¢ was the use of song rhythms able to aid recall and memory. †¢ If indeed it is shown that students benefit from learning subject matter in the classroom mnemonically through music rhythms, what is preventing teachers from using them more often in the classroom? 1. 4 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES To conglomerate the knowledge of music into the learning strategy to aid concentration and cognition †¢ To precisely state methods by which music can be incorporated into learning to aid easy recall of stuffs learnt †¢ To examine whether the attachment of the knowledge of music and rhythms to learning really aids recall and memory improvementt †¢ To prescribe the kind of music rhythms to be used in learning which can aid cognition precisely recall and memory improvement †¢ To help lecturers to sufficiently use music rhythms in teaching their students 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Yates (1972) chronicles how the Ancient Greeks, who invented many arts, also invented the art of memory. Just like their other arts this was passed onto Rome and subsequently descended in the European tradition. This method of impressing place, image, and music on memory has been called ‘mnemotechnics’ or mnemonics. †¢ The reviewed literature reveals current and past studies on the subject of using musical mnemonics as an effective memory tool in the classroom and beyond. A musical mnemonic is a useful tool for disciplines that require a great deal of memorization.Mnemonics can be teacher created or students created and should not be introduced until the student knows how to use them correctly. The literature reports that in general students, who have been taught through mnemonic instruction, outperform students taught by traditional instruction techniques. Much of the prior research was conducted in the curriculum areas of science, history, geography, English, social studies and foreign language vocabulary. The literature is presented from two complimentary perspectives; medical and educational. †¢ Sacks (2007) researched the phenomenon of brainworms.Brainworms are overly catchy tunes designed to bore their way into the listener’s ear or mind and are not easily forgotten. They were described as â€Å"cognitively infectious music agents† by a newsmagazine i n 1987 (p. 42). Sacks (2007) searches for the qualities that make a tune become almost impossible to delete from memory. Is it timbre? Rhythm? Melody? Repetition? â€Å"Or is it arousal of special emotional resonances or associations† (p. 43)? He recounts a song from his youth â€Å"Had Gadya† a Hebrew song that was long and repetitive and that became â€Å"hammered† (p. 44) into his head.He queries: â€Å"Did the qualities of repetition and simplicity†¦ act as neural facilitators, setting up a circuit (for it felt like this) that reexcited itself automatically? Or did the grim humor of the song or its solemn, liturgical context play a significant part too† (p. 44)? †¢ Sacks (2007) reports on how our brains are helplessly sensitive to music, and how the â€Å"automatic or compulsive internal repetition of musical phrases is almost universal† (p. 44). The brain treats musical imagery and musical memory in a unique way that has no equivalen ts in the visual mind.Melody, with its unique tempo, rhythm and pitch â€Å"tend to be preserved with remarkable accuracy† (p. 47) whereas visual scenes are often not recalled as accurately. Because of this â€Å"defenseless engraving of music on the brain† (p. 47) musical imagery and memory even occur in people who that they are not musical. Neurologically, people tend to find those brainworms or catchy tunes completely irresistible and unforgettable. This comes as no surprise to the advertising world that makes their millions out of flooding our world with such nauseating jingles as â€Å"Rice-a-Roni; the San Francisco treat! or â€Å"800-588-2300 Empire, today! † †¢ Mnemonics 14 †¢ Hodges (2000) marvels at the new revelations that the latest â€Å"neural machinery† has shown us, on the effects of music on the brain. He derives the following premises from neuromusical research. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The human brain has the ability t o respond to and participate in music. The musical brain operates at birth and persists throughout life. Early and ongoing musical training affects the organization of the musical brain. The musical brain consists of extensive neural systems involving widely †¢ †¢ istributed, but locally specialized regions of the brain: o Cognitive components Affective components Motor components The musical brain is highly resilient. In the same article he quotes a neurologist, Frank Wilson (1986) who states that â€Å"†¦ all of us have a biologic guarantee of musicianship†¦. we all have the capacity to respond to and participate in the music of our environment† (p. 18). Research from the Classroom and Learning Environment Gfeller (1986) did extensive research with learning disabled children and how musical mnemonics affect their retention and recall.She chose as subjects for her research both learning disabled and non learning disabled students. The study focused on the memorizing of multiplication facts through repetition either by chanting the numbers and product to a simple tune or standard verbal rehearsal. After the initial trial, the non disabled students reported significantly greater recall of the facts than the learning disabled participants (p ; . 05). By the end of the fifth trial however, both sets of participants who had learned their multiplication facts †¢ Mnemonics 15 usically, remembered significantly more (p ; . 001) than did any of the students using verbal recitation. Gfeller (1986) emphasizes the importance of teaching the students how and when to use a mnemonic. After all, the mnemonic is only effective if the student can access it, retrieve it and subsequently utilize it. She also encourages the use of familiar melodies in creating mnemonics. Students in her trial remarked that â€Å"†¦ the facts most easily recalled were those rehearsed to melodies reminiscent of songs they previousl †¢

Leadership Theories Essay

Classical and humanist management theories have had a major influence on modern theories of leadership. Making effective use of appropriate models and theories critically examine whether this is the case. In order to answer this question, it will be appropriate to look at how classical and humanist theories emerged and outline some of their theories relating to management. Further discussion will be on the role of management in comparison to that of leadership with concluding arguments on how far these theories have influenced modern leadership. The stride towards industrial development in the 19th century led to the emergence of classical management theories with several approaches. One such approach was how managers should act, manage task and deal with day to day problems of managing the business (Mullins 2004). Example of theories on the above approach is command and control by Henri Fayol, bureaucratic organisation by Max Weber and scientific management by F W Taylor. Fayol cited in Dilys Robinson (Training Journal, Jan 2005) favoured the idea of management organising task and managing people through a hierarchy system. He saw senior level managers as having authority not only by virtue of their position within the organisation but also on the increasing amount of decisions that managers had to make. Senior level managers cascaded orders through a command chain system to employees and had almost no interaction with workers. In addition Fayol taught that managers and workers had to abide by certain principles for the greater good of the organisation. For instance manager’s had to treat workers with some degree of fairness whiles workers on the order hand were expected to accept and follow plans from one leader, sub-ordinate their interest and not step beyond their responsibilities. In the same way Max Weber in Derek Pugh & J Hickman (2007) like Fayol supported the idea of a formalised organisation structure as it legitimised authority and helped to remove problems that authority based on tradition and charisma created. He was also concerned about the likelihood of managers using their authority to abuse workers within the hierarchy system hence his  idea that the relationship between the organisation and managers had to be impersonal in such a way that managerial roles are assigned and their authority based on competence. Additionally, Taylor in Dilys Robinson (Training Journal, Jan 2005) suggested that managers must be responsible for organising work and the task given to selected and trained workers to perform in accordance to the way managers deemed it. His idea seems to assert that there is one best way of performing task and that work task should be tailor made to fit those who have to perform them. Alternatively, humanist theorist which began to emerge on the background of classical management started to teach that workers were not only motivated by reward factors and that consideration of human needs was also a key in motivating workers. Humanist theories also began to look at the behaviour of employees within the organisation. Examples of humanist management theories are Douglas McGregor’s X and Y theory and Rensis Likert’s management systems and styles. Douglas McGregor under theory X proposes that in certain situations managers must use their authority in order to get things done and achieve desired results. Under theory Y, also based on certain assumptions he proposes that managers must be more democratic in their approach as this will motivate staff to contribute more to the organisation. Furthermore Rensis Likerts in Derek Pugh & J Hickman (2007) identified four varying types of management styles bordering on the exploitative – authoritative, benevolent – authoritative, consultative and participative system. The first is characterised by imposed decisions and use of threats and the second the use of rewards mainly to motivate staff. The third is were motivation is by rewards and some participation and the fourth seen as the best solution in that management have confidence in their workers, real responsibility is felt by all, communication is abundant, team-work exists and where motivation is on economic rewards based on agreed set goals between management and staff. McGraw Hill (1967) the human organisation,  agrees that all organisation should adopt this. (http://www.accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_04_likert.html) However in modern organisations the exploitative – authoritative style of management is less than ideal as this usually results in staff feeling more de-motivated and demoralised. Staffs are also more likely to rebel and challenge management by lodging their grievances with internal or external arbitration systems that are in place today. From the above, it can be that whiles views generated by the classical theorist thinks managers can only lead effectively through a formalised structure, by rules and command, humanistic views provides an alternative as to how managers must lead, they must consider the needs of their workers, encourage participation to motivate and utilise the full potential of workers for the good of the organisation. To further develop this discussion, it would be useful to examine what management and leadership involves as arguments abound as to whether management and leadership are the same or not. However the difference between the two has been shown to be in what both does. Management as a term is generic in meaning and is defined by Terry and Rue in Ernest Dale (1969) as a process or form of work that involves guidance and directing of a group of people toward organisational goals and objectives. It also covers many areas such as planning, organising, problem solving, controlling and putting appropriate structures in place. These are now seen as functions performed by individuals who have been assigned formal roles as managers. Leadership in contrast is defined by Richard L Daft, Patricia G lane (2007) as ‘an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes and outcomes that can reflect their share purpose’. Mullins, L. J (2004) also defines leadership as ‘getting people to follow’ or getting people to do things willingly. From this definition what stands out is that leaders must have followers whiles management use available resources such as people to get things done. Tom Swanick & Judy Mckimm in ABC of Clinical Leadership supports this by citing management as involving the directing of people and resources to achieve organisational values and strategic  direction established and propagated by leadership. One example of what distinguishes leadership and management is when it comes to authority, leaders do not derive authority from a hierarchy system as managers do. An example of this is a case study in John Adair (2007) which was conducted at the laboratory of a molecular biology. The study found out that it was an environment which assigned offices did not exist and all workers regardless of position integrated with one another. It allowed ideas to flourish and be shared which lead to great works being produced by the laboratory. Mullins (2007) mentions also that in the performance of work task under the 7 S’s within the organisational frame work, leaders often make use of what is called the soft S’s, style, staff skills and shared goals whiles managers use the hard S’s which is structure, system and strategy. Zaleznik (1977) cited in Brooks (2005) lends his support and suggests that managers during conflict situations usually focus on achieving compromise to maintain order and do so in an unemotional and lay back manner which does not result in change. For example the parties involved in a conflict may resolve their differences through compromise but does it guarantee that such a conflict will not arise again. Bennis and Nanus (1985) cited in ABC of clinical leadership give additional weight to the above and quotes ‘Managers are people that do things right’ but ‘leaders are people that do the right thing’. Leadership is also associated with being visionary. Gower (2010) for example cites leadership as being an ‘activity that is visionary, creative, inspirational, energising and transformational’. Managers in contrast are seen as being less so. This may stem from the way management developed and trained from the past. Managers are usually assigned to be heads of departments within the organisation and as such tend to look at how they can meet targets within their departments rather than thinking about what direction the whole organisation is heading or needs to head in today’s ever complex and changing environment. In light of these differences, management is still seen as being intertwined with leadership as the former has to  exercise leadership in the performance of their duties. For example Bolman & Deal (1997) see both as necessary for success as organisations that are over managed with little leadership involvement or vice versa results in failure. In conclusion it can be said that classical and humanistic theories have had a great impact on modern leadership in various ways. One of these is that it has changed the way leadership is viewed worldwide. Calls have been made for leadership to be exemplary and moral. A recent example was the leader of Italy, Mr Berlusconi who faced a lot of criticisms on certain aspects of his behaviour whiles in office and as a result was forced to resign from his position. Increase in communication between organisations and with external bodies has been another. Leaders are seen as the face of the organisation and to promote its success, leaders go to great strengths to forge good relations with the communities within which they operate. Finally another impact on modern leadership has been the increase in innovative ideas and technology which has resulted in economic growth. An example of a leader who has shown innovation and vision is Mark Elliot Zuckerbery, owner of Facebook, who transformed the idea of creating a college social website into a global enterprise. References: Brooks Ian (2005), Organisational behaviour: individuals, groups and organisation, 3rd ed, Pearson Education [online] Available at www.dawsonera.com Buechlar Peter; Martin David; Knaebel Hans Peter; Buechlar Markus W, Leadership characteristic and business management in modern academic surgery, Langenberks Archives of Surgery, Volume 391, Issue: 2, Pages149-156. [online] Available on ISI web of knowledge, Accessed 12/12/2011 Derek S Pugh & David J Hickson, (2007), Great writers on organisations, 3rd omnibus ed, Ash gate Publishing Ltd, [online] Available on www.dawsonera.com] Dilys Robinson, http://www.trainingjournal.com/feature/2005-01-01-management-theorists-thinkers-for-the-21st-century/ [Accessed 15/12/11] Ernest Dale (1969), Management: Theory and Practice, Copyright 1993, Carlos C. Lorenzana & Rex Book store [online] Google Books, Accessed 18/12/2011 Gower handbook of leadership and management development, GB: Gower (2010), Edited by Jeff Gold, Richard Thorpe, Alan Mumford [online] Available on www.dawsonera.com http://www.accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_04_likert.html) John Adair (2007), leadership for innovation, kogan Page Ltd [online] Available at www.dawsonera.com, Accessed 21/12/11 Mullin, L. J (2004), Management and Organisational behaviour, 7th ed., Pearson Education Mullin, L. J (2007), Management and Organisational behaviour, 8th ed., Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall Richard L Draft, Patricia G Lane (2007), The leadership experience, [online] Available on Google books, Accessed 21/12/11 Tom Swanick & Judy Mckimm, ABC of Clinical leadership 1st edition, (2010) Bmj Books, [online] Available on www.dawsonera.com, Accessed 12/12/2012 Bibliography: John P kotter, What Leaders really do, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, Available [online] www.HBSPress.org , Accessed 20/12/11.

Mary Wollstonecrafts A Vindication of the Rights of...

Mary Wollstonecrafts A Vindication of the Rights of Women and Harriet Jacobs Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl Although Mary Wollstonecraft and Harriet Jacobs lived almost 300 years apart from one another, the basic undercurrent of both of their work is the same. Wollstonecraft was a feminist before her time and Jacobs was a freed slave who wanted more than just her own freedom. Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman and Jacobs’ Incidents In the Life of a Slave Girl, Written By Herself were both revolutionary texts that were meant to inspire change and the liberation of a group of people. For Wollstonecraft, this was women; for Jacobs, it was the slaves. On the surface, these two works do not†¦show more content†¦This training from birth is also like that of slavery, in which humans of a different skin color are subjected to servitude for no other reason, insignificant objects owned by a powerful master. Jacobs tells of an incident in which her brother was forced to choose between his natural rights and the ones forced upon him, â€Å"One day, when his father and his mistress both happened to call him at the same time, he hesitated between the two; being perplexed to know which had the strongest claim upon his obedience† (Jacobs 423). Even though the little boy knows that his father has claim to him, he still goes to his master, knowing that she has complete control over him, defining him, even above the law of his parents. This objectification of women and slaves leads to their dehumanization; by treating them as objects, those that are oppressing them are destroying their senses of self-identity. Jacobs says more of her father, â€Å"Moreover, they thought he had spoiled his children, by teaching them to feel that they were human beings. This was blasphemous doctrine for a slave to teach; presumptuous in him, dangerous to the masters† (Jacobs 424). This illustrates a key point: the dehumanization of the slaves, and of women, is necessary for the master to retain control. If a slave realized he was a human being, with rights and important feelings, a master would not be able to have control over